17. 名词性从句
在句子中起名词作用的句子叫名词从句。名词从句的功能相当于名词词组, 它在复合句中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语、介词宾语等，因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能，名词从句又可分别称为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。
17.1 引导名词性从句的连接词
引导名词性从句的连接词可分为三类：
连接词： that, whether ,if （不充当从句的任何成分）
连接代词：what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whose, which
连接副词：when, where, how, why
不可省略的连词：
1. 介词后的连词
2. 引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。例如：
That she was chosen made us very happy. 她被选上了，我们很高兴。
We heard the news that our team had won. 我们听到消息说我们队赢了。
比较：whether与if 均为\"是否\"的意思。 但在下列情况下，whether 不能被if 取代：
1. whether引导主语从句并在句首
2. 引导表语从句
3. whether从句作介词宾语
4. 从句后有\"or not\"
大部分连接词引导的主语从句都可以置于句末，用 it充当形式主语。例如：
It is not important who will go. 谁去，这不重要。
It is still unknown which team will win the match. 到底谁赢呢，形势尚不明朗。
17.2 名词性that-从句
1）由从属连词that引导的从句叫做名词性that-从句。That只起连接主句和从句的作用，在从句中不担任任何成分，本身也没有词义。名词性that-从句在句中能充当主语、宾语、表语、同位语和形容词宾语。例如：
主语：That he is still alive is sheer luck. 他还活着全靠运气。
宾语：John said that he was leaving for London on Wednesday. 约翰说他星期三要到伦敦去。
表语：The fact is that he has not been seen recently. 事实是近来谁也没有见过他。
同位语：The fact that he has not been seen recently disturbs everyone in his office.
近来谁也没有见过他，这一情况令办公室所有的人不安。
形容词宾语：I am glad that you are satisfied with your job. 你对工作满意我感到很高兴。
2）That-从句作主语通常用it作先行词，而将that-从句置于句末。例如：
It is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to failure. 很清楚，整个计划注定要失败。
It\'s a pity that you should have to leave. 你非走不可真是件憾事。
用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系：
a. It + be +形容词+ that-从句
It is necessary that… 有必要……
It is important that… 重要的是……
It is obvious that… 很明显……
b. It + be + -ed 分词+ that-从句
It is believed that… 人们相信……
It is known to all that… 从所周知……
It has been decided that… 已决定……
c. It + be +名词+ that-从句
It is common knowledge that… ……是常识
It is a surprise that… 令人惊奇的是……
It is a fact that… 事实是……
d. It +不及物动词+ that-分句
It appears that… 似乎……
It happens that… 碰巧……
It occurred to me that… 我突然想起……
17.3 名词性wh-从句
1）由wh-词引导的名词从句叫做名词性wh-从句。Wh-词包括who, whom,. whose, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever等连接代词和where, when, how, why等连接副词。Wh-从句的语法功能除了和that-从句一样外，还可充当介词宾语、宾语补语和间接宾语等。例如：
主语： How the book will sell depends on its author. 书销售如何取决于作者本人。
直接宾语：In one\'s own home one can do what one likes. 在自己家里可以随心所欲。
间接宾语：The club will give whoever wins a prize. 获胜者俱乐部将颁奖。
表语： My question is who will take over president of the Foundation. 我的问题是谁将接任该基金会主席职位。
宾语补足语：She will name him whatever she wants to. 她高兴给他起什么名字就取什么名字。
同位语： I have no idea when he will return. 我不知道他什么时候回来。
形容词宾语：I\'m not sure why she refused their invitation. 我尚不能肯定她为什么拒绝他们的邀请。
介词宾语： That depends on where we shall go. 那取决于我们去哪儿。
2）Wh-从句作主语也常用先行词it做形式主语，而将wh-从句置于句末。例如：
It is not yet decided who will do that job. 还没决定谁做这项工作。
It remains unknown when they are going to get married. 他们何时结婚依然不明。
17.4 if, whether引导的名词从句
1）yes-no型疑问从句
从属连词if, whether引导的名词从句是由一般疑问句或选择疑问转化而来的，因此也分别被称为yes-no型疑问句从句和选择型疑问从句，其功能和wh-从句的功能相同。例如：
主语：Whether the plan is feasible remains to be proved. 这一计划是否可行还有等证实。
宾语：Let us know whether / if you can finish the article before Friday. 请让我们知道你是否能在星期五以前把文章写完。
表语：The point is whether we should lend him the money. 问题在于我们是否应该借钱给他。
同位语：They are investigating the question whether the man is trustworthy. 他们调查他是否值得信赖。
形容词宾语： She\'s doubtful whether we shall be able to come. 她怀疑我们是否能够前来。
介词宾语： I worry about whether he can pass through the crisis of his illness. 我担心他是否能度过疾病的危险期。
2）选择性疑问从句
选择性疑问从句由关联词if/whether…or或whethe…or not构成。例如：
Please tell me whether / if they are Swedish or Danish. 请告诉我他们是瑞典人还是丹麦人。
I don\'t care whether you like the plan or not. 我不在乎你是否喜欢该计划。
17.5 否定转移
1）将think, believe, suppose, expect, fancy, imagine等动词后面宾语从句的否定词转移到主句中，即主句的谓语动词用否定式，而从句的谓语动词用肯定式。例如：
I don\'t think I know you. 我想我并不认识你。
I don\' t believe he will come. 我相信他不回来。
注意：若谓语动词为hope,宾语从句中的否定词不能转移。例如：
I hope you weren\'t ill. 我想你没有生病吧。
2）将seem, appear 等后的从句的否定转移到前面。例如：
It doesn\'t seem that they know where to go. 看来他们不知道往哪去。
It doesn\'t appear that we\'ll have a sunny day tomorrow. 看来我们明天不会碰上好天气。
3）有时将动名词，介词短语或整个从句的否定转变为对谓语动词的否定。例如：
I don\'t remember having ever seen such a man. 我记得从未见过这样一个人。（not否定动名词短语 having…）
It\'s not a place where anyone would expect to see strange characters on the street.
在这里，人们不会想到在街上会碰上陌生的人。（anyone 作主语，从句中的谓语动词不能用否定形式。）
4）有时状语或状语从句中否定可以转移到谓语动词前。例如：
The ant is not gathering this for itself alone. （否定状语） 蚂蚁不只是为自己采食。
He was not ready to believe something just because Aristotle said so. （否定because状语）
他并不因亚里斯多德说过如何如何，就轻信此事。
She had not been married many weeks when that man\'s younger brother saw her and was struckby her beauty.（否定状语many weeks） 她结婚还不到几个月，这个人的弟弟就看见她了，并对她的美
貌着了迷。
18. 定语从句
定语从句在句中做定语，修饰一个名词或代词，被修饰的名词词组或代词即先行词。定语从句通常
出现在先行词之后，由关系词（关系代词或关系副词）引出。
关系代词有：who, whom, whose, that, which等。
关系副词有：when, where, why等。
18.1 关系代词引导的定语从句
关系代词所代替的先行词是人或物的名词或代词，并在句中充当主语、宾语、定语等成分。关系代词在定语从句中作主语时，从句谓语动词的人称和数要和先行词保持一致。
1）who, whom, that
这些词代替的先行词是人的名词或代词，在从句中作主语和宾语。例如：
Is he the man who/that wants to see you? 他就是你想见的人吗？（who/that在从句中作主语）
He is the man whom/ that I saw yesterday. 他就是我昨天见的那个人。（whom/that在从句中作宾语）
2） whose 用来指人或物，（只用作定语, 若指物，它还可以同of which互换）。例如：
They rushed over to help the man whose car had broken down. 那人车坏了，大家都跑过去帮忙。
Please pass me the book whose （of which） cover is green. 请递给我那本绿皮的书。
3）which, that所代替的先行词是事物的名词或代词，在从句中可作主语、宾语等。例如：
A prosperity which / that had never been seen before appears in the countryside.
农村出现了前所未有的繁荣。（which / that在句中作宾语）
The package （which / that）you are carrying is about to come unwrapped. 你拿的包快散了。（which / that在句中作宾语）
18.2 关系副词引导的定语从句
关系副词可代替的先行词是时间、地点或理由的名词，在从句中作状语。
1）关系副词when, where, why的含义相当于\"介词+ which\"结构，因此常常和\"介词+ which\"结构交替使用。例如：
There are occasions when （on which） one must yield. 任何人都有不得不屈服的时候。
Beijing is the place where（in which） I was born. 北京是我的出生地。
Is this the reason why （for which） he refused our offer? 这就是他拒绝我们帮助他的理由吗？
2）that代替关系副词，可以用于表示时间、地点、方式、理由的名词后取代when, where, why和\"介+which\"引导的定语从句，在口语中that常被省略。例如：
His father died the year （that / when / in which） he was born. 他父亲在他出生那年逝世了。
He is unlikely to find the place （that / where / in which） he lived forty years ago.
他不大可能找到他四十年前居住过的地方。
18.3 判断关系代词与关系副词
方法一： 用关系代词，还是关系副词完全取决于从句中的谓语动词。及物动词后面无宾语，就必须要求用关系代词；而不及物动词则要求用关系副词。例如：
This is the mountain village where I stayed last year. 这是我去年呆过的山村。
I\'ll never forget the days when I worked together with you.我永远不会忘记与你共事的日子。
判断改错：
（错） This is the mountain village where I visited last year.
（错） I will never forget the days when I spent in the countryside.
（对） This is the mountain village （which） I visited last year.
（对） I\'ll never forget the days （which） I spent in the countryside.
习惯上总把表地点或时间的名词与关系副词 where, when联系在一起。此两题错在关系词的误用上。
方法二： 准确判断先行词在定语从句中的成分（主、谓、宾、定、状），也能正确选择出关系代词/关系副词。
例1. Is this museum ___ you visited a few days age?
A. where B. that C. on which D. the one
例2. Is this the museum ____ the exhibition was held.
A. where B. that C. on which D. the one
答案：例1 D，例2 A
例1变为肯定句： This museum is ___ you visited a few days ago.
例2变为肯定句： This is the museum ___ the exhibition was held.
在句1中，所缺部分为宾语，而where, that, on which都不能起到宾语的作用，只有the one既做了主句的表语，又可做从句的宾语，可以省略关系代词，所以应选D。
而句2中, 主、谓、宾俱全，从句部分为句子的状语表地点，既可用副词where，又因 in the museum词组，可用介词in + which 引导地点状语。而此题中，介词on 用的不对，所以选A。
关系词的选择依据在从句中所做的成分，先行词在从句中做主、定、宾语时，选择关系代词（who, whom, that, which, whose）； 先行词在从句中做状语时，应选择关系副词 （ where 地点状语，when 时间状语，why 原因状语） 。
18.4 限制性和非限制性定语从句
1） 定语从句有限制性和非限制性两种。限制性定语从句是先行词不可缺少的部分，去掉它主句意思往往不明确；非限制性定语从句是先行词的附加说明，去掉了也不会影响主句的意思，它与主句之间通常用逗号分开。例如：
This is the house which we bought last month. 这是我们上个月买的那幢房子。（限制性）
The house, which we bought last month, is very nice.
这幢房子很漂亮，是我们上个月买的。（非限制性）
2） 当先行词是专有名词或物主代词和指示代词所修饰时，其后的定语从句通常是非限制性的。例如：
Charles Smith, who was my former teacher, retired last year.
查理•史密斯去年退休了，他曾经是我的老师。
My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden.
我去年买的的那幢房子带着个漂亮的花园。
This novel, which I have read three times, is very touching. 这本小说很动人，我已经读了三遍。
3） 非限制性定语从句还能将整个主句作为先行词, 对其进行修饰, 这时从句谓语动词要用第三人称单数。例如：
He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me.
他似乎没抓住我的意思，这使我心烦。
Liquid water changes to vapor, which is called evaporation. 液态水变为蒸汽，这就叫做蒸发。
说明：关系代词that和关系副词why不能引导非限制性定语从句。
18.5 介词+关系词
1）介词后面的关系词不能省略。
2）that前不能有介词。
3）某些在从句中充当时间，地点或原因状语的\"介词+关系词\"结构可以同关系副词when 和where 互换。例如：
This is the house in which I lived two years ago. 这是我两年前住过的房子。
This is the house where I lived two years ago.
Do you remember the day on which you joined our club? 还记得你加入我们俱乐部的那一天吗？
Do you remember the day when you joined our club?
18.6 as, which 非限定性定语从句
由as, which 引导的非限定性定语从句，as和which可代整个主句，相当于and this或and that。As一般放在句首，which在句中。例如：
As we know, smoking is harmful to one\'s health. 如我们所知，吸烟有害健康。
The sun heats the earth, which is very important to us. 太阳使地球暖起来，这对我们人类很重要。
典型例题
1）Alice received an invitation from her boss, ___came as a surprise.
A. it B. that C. which D. he
答案C. 此为非限定性从句，不能用 that修饰，而用which.，it 和he 都使后句成为句子，两个独立的句子不能单以逗号连接。况且选he句意不通。
2）The weather turned out to be very good, ___ was more than we could expect.
A. what B. which C. that D. it
答案B。which可代替句子，用于非限定性定语从句，而what不可。That 不能用于非限定性定语从句，it不为连词，使由逗号连接的两个句子并在一起在英语语法上行不通。
3）It rained hard yesterday, ____ prevented me from going to the park..
A. that B. which C. as D. it
答案B. as 和which在引导非限制性定语从句时，这两个关系代词都指主句所表达的整个意思，且在定语从句中都可以作主语和宾语。但不同之处主要有两点：
（1）as 引导的定语从句可置于句首，而which不可。
（2） as 代表前面的整个主句并在从句中作主语时，从句中的谓语必须是系动词；若为行为动词，则从句中的关系代词只能用which.。在本题中，prevent由于是行为动词，所以正确选项应为B。
as 的用法
例1. the same…as；such…as 中的as 是一种固定结构, 和……一样……。例如：
I have got into the same trouble as he （has）. 我碰到了跟他一样的麻烦。
例2. as可引导非限制性从句，常带有\'正如\'。例如：
As we know, smoking is harmful to one\'s health. 如我们所知，吸烟有害健康。
As is known, smoking is harmful to one\'s health.
As是关系代词。例1中的as作know的宾语；例2中，它充当从句的主语，谓语动词know要用被动式。
18.7 先行词和关系词二合一
1） Whoever spits in public will be punished here. （Whoever 可以用 anyone who 代替）
2） The parents will use what they have to send their son to technical school.（what 可以用all that代替）
18.8 what/whatever; that/what; who/whoever
1）what = the thing which；whatever = anything。例如：
What you want has been sent here. 你要的动词都送来了。
Whatever you want makes no difference to me. 不管你要什么，跟我没什么关系。
2） who= the person that whoever= anyone who。例如：
（错）Who breaks the law will be punished.
（错）Whoever robbed the bank is not clear.
（对）Whoever breaks the law will be punished. 王子犯法，与庶民同罪。
（对）Who robbed the bank is not clear. 谁抢了银行还不清楚。
3） that 和 what
当that引导定语从句时，通常用作关系代词，而引导名词性从句时，是个不充当任何成分的连接词。宾语从句和表语从句中的that常可省略。What只能引导名词性从句，用作连接代词，作从句的具体成分，且不能省略。例如：
I think（that）you will like the stamps. 我想你会喜欢这些邮票的。
What we need is more practice. 我们需要的是更多的实践。
18.9 关系代词that 的用法
1）不用that的情况
a） 引导非限定性定语从句时。例如：
（错）The tree, that is four hundred years old, is very famous here.
b） 介词后不能用。例如：
We depend on the land from which we get our food. 我们依赖土地获得食物。
We depend on the land that/which we get our food from.
2） 只能用that作为定语从句的关系代词的情况
a） 在there be 句型中，只用that，不用which。
b） 在不定代词，如：anything, nothing, the one, all, much, few, any, little等作先行词时，只用that，不用which。
c） 先行词有the only, the very修饰时，只用that。
d） 先行词为序数词、数词、形容词最高级时，只用that。.
e） 先行词既有人，又有物时。例如：
All that is needed is a supply of oil. 所需的只是供油问题。
Finally, the thief handed everything that he had stolen to the police. 那贼最终把偷的全部东西交给了警察。
19. 状语从句
19.1 地点状语从句
地点状语从句通常由where, wherever 引导。例如：
Where I live there are plenty of trees. 我住的地方树很多。
Wherever I am I will be thinking of you. 不管我在哪里我都会想到你。
19.2 方式状语从句
方式状语从句通常由as, （just） as…so…, as if, as though引导。
1）as, （just） as…so…引导的方式状语从句通常位于主句后，但在（just） as…so…结构中位于句首，这时as从句带有比喻的含义，意思是\"正如…\"，\"就像\"，多用于正式文体。例如：
Always do to the others as you would be done by. 你希望人家怎样待你，你就要怎样待人。
As water is to fish, so air is to man. 我们离不开空气，犹如鱼儿离不开水。
Just as we sweep our rooms, so we should sweep backward ideas from our minds.
正如打扫房屋一样，我们也要扫除我们头脑中落后的东西。
2）as if, as though
两者的意义和用法相同，引出的状语从句谓语多用虚拟语气，表示与事实相反，有时也用陈述语气，表示所说情况是事实或实现的可能性较大。汉译常作\"仿佛……似的\"，\"好像……似的\"。例如：
They completely ignore these facts as if （as though） they never existed. 他们完全忽略了这些事实，就仿佛它不存在似的。（与事实相反，谓语用虚拟语气。）
He looks as if （as though） he had been hit by lighting. 他那样子就像被雷击了似的。（与事实相反，谓语用虚拟语气。）
It looks as if the weather may pick up very soon. 看来天气很快就会好起来。（实现的可能性较大，谓语用陈述语气。）
说明：as if / as though也可以引导一个分词短语、不定式短语或无动词短语。例如：
He stared at me as if seeing me for first time. 他目不转睛地看着我，就像第一次看见我似的。
He cleared his throat as if to say something. 他清了清嗓子，像要说什么似的。
The waves dashed on the rocks as if in anger. 波涛冲击着岩石，好像很愤怒。
19.3 原因状语从句
比较because, since, as和for：
1）because语势最强，用来说明人所不知的原因，回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知，就用as或 since。例如：
I didn\'t go, because I was afraid. 我不去是因为我怕。
Since /As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey. 天气那么糟，旅行推迟了。
2）由because引导的从句如果放在句末，且前面有逗号，则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因，而是多种情况加以推断，就只能用for。例如：
He is absent today, because / for he is ill. 他今天缺席，因为他病了。
He must be ill, for he is absent today. 他一定病了，所以今天缺席。
19.4 目的状语从句
表示目的状语的从句可以由that, so that, in order that, lest, for fear that, in case等词引导。例如：
You must speak louder so that /in order that you can be heard by all. 你必须大点声，别人就能听见了。
He wrote the name down for fear that（lest） he should forget it. 他写下了这个名字以免以后忘记。
Better take more clothes in case the weather is cold. 最好多穿点衣服，以防天发冷。
19.5 结果状语从句
结果状语从句常由so…that 或 such…that引导。so…that与such…that之间可以转换。例如：
The boy is so young that he can\'t go to school. 这男孩年龄太小，不能上学。
He is such a young boy that he can\'t go to school
19.6 条件状语从句
连接词主要有 if, unless, as/so long as, on condition that 等。if 引导的条件句有真实条件句和非真实条件句两种。非真实条件句已在虚拟语气中阐述。
unless = if not. 例如：
Let\'s go out for a walk unless you are too tired. 如果不太累，我们去散散步。
If you are not too tied, let\'s go out for a walk.
典型例题
You will be late ___ you leave immediately.
A. unless B. until C. if D. or
答案A。句意：除非你立即走，否则你就回迟到的。可转化为 If you dong leave immediately, you will be late。B、D句意不对，or表转折，句子如为 You leave immediately or you will be late.
19.7 让步状语从句
1）though, although引导的让步状语从句，后面的从句不能有but，但是 though 和yet可连用。例如：
Although it\'s raining, they are still working in the field. 虽然在下雨，但他们仍在地里干活。
He is very old, but he still works very hard. 虽然他很老了，但仍然努力地工作。
Though the sore be healed, yet a scar may remain. 伤口虽愈合，但伤疤留下了。（谚语）
2） as, though 引导的让步从句必须表语或状语提前（形容词、副词、分词、实义动词提前）。例如：
Child as /though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do.
虽然是个小孩，该做什么不做什么，他全知道。
3） ever if, even though 即使。例如：
We\'ll make a trip even though the weather is bad. 即使天气不好，我们也要去远足。
4） whether…or… 不管……都。例如：
Whether you believe it or not, it is true. 信不信由你，这确实是真的。
5） \"no matter +疑问词\" 或\"疑问词+后缀ever\" 。例如：
No matter what happened, he would not mind. =Whatever happened, he would not mind. 不管发生什么，他不在意。
替换：no matter what = whatever
no matter who = whoever
no matter when = whenever
no matter where = wherever
no matter which = whichever
no matter how = however
注意：no matter 不能引导主语从句和宾语从句。
（错）No matter what you say is of no use now.
（对）Whatever you say is of no use now. 你现在说什么也没用了。（Whatever you say是主语从句）
（错）Prisoners have to eat no matter what they\'re given,
（对）Prisoners have to eat whatever they\'re given.囚犯们只能给什么吃什么。
19.8 比较while, when, as
1）as, when 引导短暂性动作的动词。例如：
Just as / Just when / When I stopped my car, a man came up to me. 我一刹车，有一个人向我走来。
2）当从句的动作发生于主句动作之前，只能用when 引导这个从句，不可用as 或 while。例如：
When you have finished your work, you may have a rest. 赶完活后，你可以休息一下。
3）从句表示\"随时间推移\"连词能用as，不用when 或while。例如：
As the day went on, the weather got worse. 日子一天天过去，天气越变越坏。
19.9 比较until和till
此两个连词意义相同。肯定形式表示的意思是\"做某事直至某时\"，动词必须是延续性的。否定形式表达的意思是\"直至某时才做某事\"。动词为延续性或非延续性都可以。正确使用这两个连词的关键之一就在于判断句中的动词该用肯定式还是否定式。肯定句：I slept until midnight. 我一直睡到半夜时醒了。
Wait till I call you. 等着我叫你。（在肯定句中可用before代替。例如 Let\'s get in the wheat before the sun sets.）
否定句：She didn\'t arrive until 6 o\'clock. 她直到6点才到。
Don\'t get off the bus until it has stopped. 公共汽车停稳后再下车。
I didn\'t manage to do it until you had explained how. 直到你教我后，我才会做。
区别：1）until可用于句首，而till通常不用于句首。例如：
Until you told me, I had heard nothing of what happened. 直到你告诉我以前，出了什么事我一点也不知道。
2）until when 疑问句中，until要放在句首。例如：
---Until when are you staying? 你呆到什么时候？
--- Until next Monday. 呆到下周一。
注意：否定句可用另外两种句式表示。
1）Not until…在句首，主句用倒装。例如：
Not until the early years of the 19th century did man know what heat is. 直到19 世纪初，人类才知道热为何物。
Not until I began to work did I realize how much time I had wasted. 直到工作，才认识到我已蹉跎了几多岁月。
2）It is not until… that… 。例如：
It was not until I began to work that I realized how much time I had wasted.
19.10 表示\"一…就…\"的结构
hardly/scarcely…when/before, no sooner…than 和as soon as都可以表示\"一…就…\"的意思。例如：
I had hardly / scarcely got home when it began to rain. 刚回家，就下起雨来了。
I had no sooner got home than it began to rain.
As soon as I got home, it began to rain.
注意：如果hardly, scarcely 或no sooner置于句首，句子必须用倒装结构。例如：
Hardly / Scarcely had I got home when it began to rain.
No sooner had I got home than it began to rain.
20. 连词
连词不能独立担任句子成分而只起连接词与词，短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要可分为两类：并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如：and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, （and）then等等。
20.1 并列连词与并列结构
并列连词引导两个并列的词、词组或句子。
1） and 与or
判断改错：（错）They sat down and talk about something.
（错）They started to dance and sang.
（错）I saw two men sitting behind and whisper there.
（对）They sat down and talked about something.
（对）They started to dance and sing.
（对）I saw two men sitting behind and whispering there.
解析：第一句： and 连接两个并列的谓语，所以 talk 应改为 talked。
第二句：and 连接两个并列的动词不定式，第二个不定式往往省略to，因此sang 应改为 sing。
第三句：and 连接感观动词saw 后面的用作的宾补的两个并列分词结构，因此whisper应改为whispering。
注意：and 还可以和祈使句或名词词组连用表示条件。（or也有此用法）例如：
Make up your mind, and you\'ll get the chance. 拿定主意，这次你会有机会的。
= If you make up your mind, you\'ll get the chance.
One more effort, and you\'ll succeed. 再努力一下，你会成功的。
= If you make one more effort, you\'ll succeed.
2） both…and 两者都。例如：
She plays （both） the piano and the guitar. 她弹钢琴，也弹吉他。
3） not only…but （also）, as well as不但…而且。例如：
She plays not only the piano, but （also） the guitar. 她不但弹钢琴，也弹吉他。
注意：not only… but also 关联两个分句时，一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。例如
Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.他不但喜欢读小说，甚至还会写。
4） neithe…nor 意思为\"既不……也不……\"谓语动词采用就近原则，与nor后的词保持一致。例如：
Neither you nor he is to blame. 你和他都不该受指责。
20.2 比较and和or
1） 并列结构中，or通常用于否定句，and用于肯定句。
2） 但有时and 也可用于否定句。请注意其不同特点：
There is no air or water in the moon.
There is no air and no water on the moon.
在否定中并列结构用or 连接，但含有两个否定词的句子实际被看作是肯定结构，因此要用and。
典型例题
---I don\'t like chicken ___ fish.
---I don\'t like chicken, ___ I like fish very much.
A. and； and B. and； but C. or； but D. or；and
答案C。否定句中表并列用or, but 表转折。
判断改错：（错）We will die without air and water.
（错）We can\'t live without air or water.
（对）We will die without air or water.
（对）We can\'t live without air and water.
20.3 表示选择的并列结构
1） or意思为\"否则\"。例如：
I must work hard, or I\'ll fail in the exam. 我要努力学习，否则考试要不及格了。
2） either…or 意思为\"或者……或者……\"。注意谓语动词的主谓一致采用就近原则。例如：
Either you or I am right. 不是你对，就是我对。
20.4 表示转折或对比
1） but表示转折，while表示对比。例如：
Some people love cats, while others hate them.有些人喜欢猫，而有些人不喜欢。
典型例题
--- Would you like to come to dinner tonight?
--- I\'d like to, ___ I\'m too busy.
A. and B. so C. as D. but
答案D。but与前面形成转折，符合语意。而表并列的and， 结果的so，原因的as都不符合句意。
2） not…but… 意思为\"不是…而是…\"，后面的用词要遵循一致原则。
They were not the bones of an animal, but （the bones） of a human being. 这些不是动物的骨头，而是人的。
20.5 表原因关系
1） for是并列连词，不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首，只能将其放在两个分句中间。
判断改错：（错） For he is ill, he is absent today.
（对） He is absent today, for he is ill.
2） so为连词, therefore一般为副词。例如：
He hurt his leg, so he couldn\'t play in the game. 他的腿受伤了，不能上场。
I think; therefore I exist. 我思故我在。
20.6 比较so和 such
such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many，few，much， little连用，形成固定搭配。
so + adj. such + a（n） + n.
so + adj. + a（n） + n. such + n. （pl.）
so + adj. + n. （pl.） such +n. （pl.）
so + adj. + n. （不可数） such +n.（不可数）
so foolish such a fool
so nice a flower such a nice flower
so many/ few flowers such nice flowers
so much/ little money. such rapid progress
so many people such a lot of people
so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。so…that与such…that之间的转换即为 so与such之间的转换。
20.7 连词和从句练习
1. I’d get it for you ______ I could remember who last borrowed the book.
a. on condition that b. now that c. except that d. considering that
2. The robber told him that he had better keep silent ______ he wanted to get into trouble
a. if b. unless c. otherwise d. whether
3. Strange ______ his behavior may be, there is a very good reason for it.
a. although b. even if c. that d. as
4. We are worried about our son because no one is aware ______ he has gone.
a. the place b. of where c. about the place d. where
5. The professor spoke in a loud voice ______ every one of us could hear him.
a. such that b. so c. so that d. such
6. When he just got off the plane, he gave us a good description of ______ in Spain.
a. what he had seen b. that he had seen c. which he had seen d. he had seen what
7. It is fitted with a small transformer, by means of ______ the voltage of the currency can be adjusted.
a. whom b. which c. what d. that
8. I don’t know why she’s looking at me ______ she knew me. I’ve never seen her before in my life.
a. as b. although c. even if d. as if
9. No sooner had he finished his speech ______ stormy applause broke out.
a. when b. then c. than d. as
10. It is hard to avoid mistakes. ______ you correct them conscientiously, it will be all right.
a. In the case b. As long as c. Although d. Despite
11. Geometry, ______ I know nothing, seems a very dull subject.
a. that b. about that c. which d. about which
12. The highest temperature ______ in any furnace on earth is about 10,000 centigrade.
a. we can get b. that we can get it c. which we can get it d. what we can get
13. We sent the horses to a considerable distance, ______ they should disturb the children.
a. less b. lest c. last d. least
14. Sound is conducted through steel in the same manner ______.
a. as in air b. as through air c. as air does d. like air
15. _____ he was putting on his uniform, the officer found that one of the sleeves was torn.
a. Since b. Unless c. As d. Before
16. The police finally caught up with the man ______ was the escaped prisoner.
a. who they thought b. whom they thought
c. they thought him d. that they thought him
17. ______ knows the name of this song will receive a prize from the radio station.
a. Whoever b. Those c. Whichever people d. Any people
18. ______ do you believe is not about to support our plan?
a. Whom b. Who c. Whomever d. Which
19. He didn’t know French, ______ made it difficult for him to study at a university in France.
a. that b. as c. this d. which
20. She is a fine singer, ______ her mother used to be
a. like b. that c. as d. which
21. ______, I realize that I owe a debt to my early country life.
a. Lover of towns I am b. As lover of towns
c. Lover of towns as am I d. Though am I the lover of towns
22. The rise of Davy was all the more brilliant in ______ he had not had much schooling.
a. which b. that c. what d. the way
23. She always takes careful notes in class ______ she may review them from time to time.
a. so that b. in order to c. because of d. rather than
24. The reason he was late is ______ his clock didn’t give the alarm.
a. because b. due to c. since d. that
25. ______ he was in error will scarcely be disputed by his warmest friends.
a. What b. That c. Which d. Though
26. I shall do the exercises ______ I have been taught.
a. such b. as c. what d. for
27. ______ is worth doing at all is worth doing well.
a. That b. Whatever c. Whichever d. However
28. She was so stubborn that she never listens to the advice ______.
a. that I give it to her b. which I give to her
c. what I give to her d. I give it to her
29. I was supposed to be a mathematics major, but I actually took ______ courses in physics, if not more.
a. so many b. as many c. a good many d. such many
30. Heat does not travel by convection in a solid, because the solid does not move, ______.
a. so does a liquid b. so a liquid does c. so is a liquid d. as does a liquid
31. He explained everything over again ______ anyone should misunderstand her.
a. since b. when c. lest d. as if
32. ______ convincing an argument is, it needs support of evidence.
a. Whatever b. However c. Although d. Even if
33. Earthworms occur ______ adequate moisture and food and the necessary soil conditions are found.
a. and b. however c. but d. wherever
34. ______ we gave him anything to eat, he would save it up for his little brother.
a. When b. That c. Whenever d. What
35. The reason I plan to go is ______ if I don’t.
a. because she will be disappointed b. because she will have a disappointment
c. that she will be disappointed d. for which she will be disappointed
36.The great use of a school education is not so much to teach you things ______ to teach you the art of learning.
a. than b. rather than c. nor d. as
37. If the design was wrong, the project is bound to fail, ______ good all the other ideas might be.
a. whatever b. however c. whatsoever d. even
38. He gave ______ came to the store a pamphlet in which his products were described.
a. who b. those c. whom d. whoever
39. Advertising is distinguished from other forms of communication ______ the advertiser pays for the message to be delivered.
a. in that b. in order that c. in which d. that
40. Fox was advised to give the assignment to _______ he believed had a strong sense of responsibility.
a. whom b. whomever c. whoever d. that
41. The chairman of the union made it clear at the meeting ______ he would not step down form his position as chairman.
a. in which b. where c. because d. that
42. ______ Ms. Wang reached the post-office, she discovered she had left the letter at home.
a. Just as b. Because c. As long as d. When as
43. The first step in preparing such a program is to draw a flow chart, ______ are shown opposite.
a. two examples of it b. two examples of which
c. whose two example d. which two examples
44. ______ the world began, nations have had difficulty in keeping peace with their neighbors.
a. Although b. When c. Until d. Ever since
45. ______ difficulties we may come across, we will help one another to get over them.
a. Whatever b. Whichever c. However d. What
46. He went to work so late ______ the manager had to send for him again before he arrived.
a. as b. that c. for d. when
47. ______ you return those books to the library immediately you will have to pay a fine.
a. Until b. If c. Unless d. Provided
48. The rose may grow as a low bush or as a tree, depending on ______.
a. what it is trimmed b. how it trimmed c. that is trimmed d. how it is trimmed
49. Group work is a method of teaching ______ tasks and activities are carried out by small groups of pupils.
a. which b. that c. for which d. in that
50. Einstein’s theory of relativity seemed hard to believe at the time ______.
a. when he first introduced b. that he first introduced it
c. he first introduced d. which he first introduced it
51. Now we may be able to say ______ between music and noise or just sound.
a. what is the difference b. the difference is what
c. what the difference is c. that what the difference
52. Contrary to ______ I had expected, he lost for a second time.
a. that b. what c. which d. who
53. Professor Smith was so punctual ______, he always arrived to class just as the bell rang.
a. that the day he died b. until the day he died
c. that until the day he died d. until the day when he died
54. ______ he came to England to study, he didn’t know how to cook.
a. When b. since c. Until d. Unless
55. Although Mr smith is one of those teachers who appear to be friendly, ______ he is very hard to deal with.
a. but b. so c. so that d. yet
56. ______ a baby kangaroo is four months old does it begin to live outside its mother’s pouch.
a. Until b. Not until c. After d. Only until
57.The earliest kind of desk was a box that had a sloping lid _______ there was storage space for writing materials.
a. under that b. under which c. which d. that
58. I won’t lend any money to Joe because I am afraid ______ he will forget to pay it back.
a. if b. whether c. that d. of
59. ______ human beings depend to a great extent on forests, every effort must be made to preserve trees and wildlife.
a. If b. Unless c. Until d. Since
60. ______ he was caught cheating on the exam, Oliver had been considered to be an honest boy.
a. When b. After c. Although d. Before
61. Not long after Galileo’s time, Newton invented another kind of telescope ______ mirrors instead of lenses.
a. which used b. in which he used c. that he used d. in that he used
62. _____ him as a writer I don’t like him as a man.
a. Much I admire b. Much as I admire c. As much I admire d. As I admire much
63. I punish the child ______ he should make the same mistake again.
a. as be because c. lest d. unless
64. Hardly had the speaker begun to talk ______ were laughs.
a. when there b. than there c. than d. that
65. A joint is ______ permits the forward and backward movement of a door.
a. that b. whose c. those d. what
66. I am pleased with what you have told me and ______ you have given me.
a. all what b. all that c. which d. all whatever
67. ______ has recently been done to improve the conditions of elementary schools a great number of children are unable to go to school.
a. That b. What c. In spite of what d. Though what
68. Nuclear weapon is considered the most terrible weapon of war ______ man has invented.
a. which b. that c. as d. since
69. ______ he performed the task with success.
a. It was expected b. Which was expected
c. As was expected d. That was expected
70. The size of the audience, ______ I had expected, was well over ten thousand.
a. which b. that c. as d. whom
71. Not everybody could be expected to know all the answers, ______ some questions called for educated guesses rather than general knowledge.
a. as b. so c. such d. once
72. ______ you try, you’ll never lose your English accent.
a. No matter what b. How hard c. No matter how hard d. Whatever hard
73. ______ the bridge were packed with cars and buses, it could still carry twice the load.
a. Despite b. Provided c. Unless d. Even if
74. The airplane crashed and over a hundred passengers were killed, ______.
a. and that shocked the world b. and which shocked the world
c. this fact shocked the world d. which shocked the world
75. The time will surely come ______ ordinary people could operate computers as well.
a. while b. when c. as d. on which
76. This machine is new. ______, it is in excellent condition.
a. Furthermore b. However c. Otherwise d. but
77. This room had but a single window, ______ were kept closed when it was not in use.
a. which its shutters b. its shutters of which
c. the shutters of which d. which shutters
78. The old man is no coward; ______ he is a man of high spirits.
a. rather than b. on the contrary c. on the other hand d. at the same time
79. Satellite photographs can provide information on ______ rain are falling.
a. which where and how much b. where and how
c. where and how d. where and how much
80. Skiing is a sport ______ goes back 4,000 years.
a. and its b. whose history c. its history d. and which
81. They will be praised or blamed ______ their work is good or bad.
a. according as b. as for c. in as much as d. as regards
82. The story of his upbringing is shocking ______.
a. to all that read it b. to all who reads it c. to all which read it d. to all who read it
83. You should get the license in two weeks; ______, you’ll have to pay a fine.
a. yet b. still c. or d. consequently
84. I had hardly reached the airport ______ he started for his destination.
a. then b. when c. the moment d. than
85. He had a large collection of books, ______ are written in foreign languages.
a. many b. many ones of which c. many of which d. many in which
86. The book is for the students ______ native language is not Chinese to study in a Chinese college or university.
a. their b. that c. whose d. of whom
87. Geologists cannot accurately predict ______ the live volcano will erupt again.
a. when b. which c. is that d. and when
88. ______ said under oath was disputed by several other witness.
a. It is the man b. What the man c. That the man d. The man has
89. ______ I was going to college, I was also working as a waitress on weekends.
a. During the time that b. At the moment that
c. In spite of the fact that d. On the ground that
90. it is a good idea to take a first-aid kit ______ there is an accident.
a. in case b. in the event of c. in condition d. but that
91. The strength of the new material is ______ it can stand heavy loads at high temperature.
a. that b. such that c. what d. so that
92. That’s the doctor ______ on the seriously wounded man.
a. who he operated b. that he operated
c. who operated d. that operated him
93. _____ , the problem can be solved in only 2 hours with an electronic computer.
a. Complicated though it is b. Though is it complicated
c. As it is complicated d. Complicated as it is
94. He burned all the important documents ______ that they should fall into the enemy’s hands.
a. unless b. so b. lest d. for fear
95. His office on the fortieth floor of a skyscraper in the center of New York City is the world ______.
a. that he works b. which he works c. he works in c. he works
96. With the introduction of the electronic computer, there are no complicated problem ______ can be solved.
a. that b. as c. but d. which
97. ______ all behavior is learned behavior is a basic assumption of social scientists.
a. Nearly b. That nearly c. It is nearly d. When nearly
98. In the testing period, the students spent ______ much time in the classroom on mathematics ______ they spent on any other subject.
a. as, as b. as, that c. so, that d. such, that
99. Our confidence in the curative properties of the bottle of medicine remains the same ______.
a. like theirs b. as they c. as theirs d. as them
100. The audience, ______ enjoyed the performance.
a. most of them were students b. most of whom were students
c. whom they were students d. they were mostly students
101. ______ steel is stronger than iron, men are able to make steel pipes with larger diameters.
a. While b. If c. Unless d. As
102. Mr. Chen said that he would be punctual for the appointment, ______ he were late?
a. but what if b. how about c. so what d. and what about
103. Mrs. Lee will move into her new house next Monday, ______ it will be completely furnished.
a. by which time b. by the time c. by that time d. by some time
104. I have little doubt about his competence; ______ he is well-qualified for the job.
a. although b. because c. moreover d. yet
105. The quantum theory states ______, such as light, is given off and absorbed in tiny definite units called quanta or protons.
a. energy that b. that it is energy c. it is energy d. that energy
106. ______ to space travelers is high acceleration or deceleration forces.
a. Danger can be b. They can be dangerous
c. What can be dangerous d. While danger
107. ______ these questions may sound academic, answers to them could have profound economic and political significance.
a. Since b. If c. While d. Lest
108. A body weighs ______ from the surface of the Earth.
a. less the farther it gets b. the farther it gets
c. less than it gets farther d. less than it, the farther it gets
109. ______ it is you’ve found, you must give it back to the person it belongs to.
a. That b. Because c. Whatever d. However
110. ______ is often the case with a new idea much preliminary activity and optimistic discussion produce no concrete proposals.
a. That b. It c. Which d. As
111. Angiosperms inhabit relatively diverse environments and may be found ______ higher plants can survive.
a. there b. wherever c. somewhere d. anywhere
112. Without facts, we cannot form a worthwhile opinion for we need to have factual knowledge ______ our thinking.
a. upon which to base b. which to base upon
c. which to be based on d. to which to be based
113. Twelve is to six ______ two is to one.
a. what b. which c. that d. when
114. ______, she knows French well.
a. A child as she is b. Child as she is c. As she is a child d. The child as she is
115. ______, they could find nobody in the house.
a. As they would search b. Would as they search
c. Search as they would d. They would search as
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