提 要 英语的物主代词或生格名词修饰一个名词时除了可以表示所属、施事等之外,还可以表示受事。物主代词或生格名词表示的受事称为前置宾语生格。前置宾语生格用于动作名词或施事名词短语中,所表示的意义跟后置宾语生格即of-生格相同。本文试图运用经济原则和标记理论对前置宾语生格的成因作出解释,并通过实例来分析名词短语中同一生格形式表达不同语义关系的复杂性和某些动作名词在生格应用上所具有的独特性。
关键词 前置宾语生格;动作名词;施事名词;经济原则;标记理论
On the Premodifying Objective Genitive in English
Abstract: Modifying a noun, the possessive pronoun or the noun in the genitive case in English may indicate the patient, in addition to the possession, the agent, etc. The possessive pronoun or the genitive noun indicating the patient is called the premodifying objective genitive, which is used in the action-noun or the agentive-noun phrase, and the meaning of which is identical with that indicated by the postmodifying objective genitive, or the of-genitive. This paper attempts to make an explanation for the cause behind the premodifying objective genitive on the economy principle and the markedness theory, and to make an analysis, by example, of the complexity that different semantic relationships are expressed in the same form in the noun phrase, and of the uniqueness that some action nouns have in the use of the genitive.
Key words: premodifying objective genitive; action noun; agentive noun, economy principle; markedness theory
1. 引言
在名词短语中,物主代词、生格名词、通格名词(如property damage/mail delivery),甚至形容词(如genetic damage/environmental conservation and restoration)都可能跟名词构成动宾关系。本文仅讨论物主代词和生格名词在短语中所具有的宾语功能。生格名词指的是带生格形式(-’s)的名词。物主代词(possessive pronoun)有两类,一是定语性物主代词(attributive possessive pronoun),一是名词性物主代词(nominal possessive pronoun)。传统语法认为前者相当于形容词,可做定语;后者相当于名词,可以单独做主语、宾语和表语。本文所讲的物主代词是前者。一般,语法学家讲的生格把物主代词包括在内。本文用“生格”、“宾语生格”或“前置宾语生格”时包括物主代词和生格名词,有必要加以区分时采用“物主代词”和“生格名词”。表示受事的生格叫做宾语生格(objective genitive)。
然而,本文关注的不是生格的定语功能,也不是它对名词的限定功能,而是它在名词短语中的宾语功能。所讲的名词也不是一般的名词,而是动转名词。动转名词也可以叫做名词化(nominalization)名词,但我们采用前一术语。动转名词是指那些有相应动词的名词。它有很多种类,不仅包括以-ing结尾表示动作结果的具体名词,也包括通过添加-er, -or, -ant等词缀把动词变为含有具体意义的施事名词(agentive noun)和通过添加-age, -al, -ation等词缀把动词变为含有抽象意义但仍然具有动作意义的那类名词。为了对动转名词有所区分,我们把最后这种名词叫做动作名词(action noun)。施事名词和动作名词虽然都叫名词,但却跟一般的名词不一样——具有动作意义(verbal force)。本文要讨论的就是这两种名词短语内生格所具有的宾语功能。我们先看几个带物主代词的例子:
(1) Not only the family but all the neighbourhood resounded his praises. (Henry Fielding)
(2) To wipe out a man’s name from his child is to destroy his memory. (H. Beardsley)
(3) I could not comprehend this doctrine of endurance; and still less could I understand or sympathize with the forbearance she expressed for her chastiser. (Charlotte Bront?)
这些句子中的his praises, his memory和her chastiser不就是物主代词修饰或限定一个名词么?表面上看似乎很简单。其实不然。请看下表列出的意义分析。
NP |
含义 |
his praises |
The family and all the neighbourhood praised him. |
his memory |
His child memorizes him. |
her chastiser |
The person who chastised her. |
从上表分析出的含义可以看出,物主代词代表了语义上的受事。定语性物主代词虽然名为“物主”和“定语性”,但都名不副实。它“修饰”或限定的虽为名词,但实际上都带有动作意义。例(1)中的praises和例(2)中的memory是动作名词,例(3)中的chastiser是施事名词。
Jespersen(1933: 317-8)注意到,这类名词所带的物主代词有时会产生歧义。例如:
(4) Your praise encouraged him.
(5) We must come to his assistance.
(4)中的your praise既可以解释为“对你的赞扬”,也可以解释为“你对他的赞扬”;(5)中的his assistance既可以解释为“对他的帮助”,也可以解释为“我们帮助他”。Jespersen(1933: 318)说,可以作两种解释的原因是:连系式名词(nexus-substantive)有时是主动的,有时是被动的。
一般的语法书不大介绍宾语生格。但是,宾语生格在英语里并不是罕见的语言现象。如果不了解宾语生格的用法,我们对有些句子便无法理解。因此,本文认为很有必要对这种语言现象作一个比较详细的介绍并试图运用经济原则和标记理论对前置宾语生格作出解释。
2. 在动作名词短语中
这一节我们讨论动作名词短语里的宾语生格,并把重点放在物主代词上。动作名词短语如果带有物主代词,最常见的情况是,物主代词是语义上的施事和句法上的主语。如果SVO俱全,在许多情况下物主代词是施事,而位于动作名词之后的成分是受事。这与句子层面的SVO语序是一致的。如果只有VO,而且受事由代词表示,就有可能出现用物主代词表示的宾语。例如:
(6) None, I believe, will deny but that those squires fulfil this end of their creation. (Henry Fielding)
(7) Tom bore his punishment with great resolution. (Henry Fielding)
(8) Why should we idly waste our prime Repeating our oppressions? (Robert Buns)
(9) He would have been ashamed to own the flutter of spirits his appointment gave him. (E. C. Gaskell)
(10) The sun, on account of the mist, had a curious sentient, personal look, demanding the masculine pronoun for its adequate expression. (Thomas Hardy)
这些句子中动作名词之前的物主代词都有宾语功能。creation, punishment, oppressions, appointment, expression都是由动词派生而来的。其相应的及物动词是create, punish, oppress, appoint和express。在小句层面,及物动词所带的宾语自然就是小句的宾语。当及物动词转化为动作名词后,必要时也需要有自己的宾语。然而,动作名词属于名词范畴,其宾语不能以小句层面的宾语形式出现,只能寻求其它途径来满足这种需要。以物主代词的形式来表示动作名词短语内的宾语是满足这种需要的语言形式之一。
另一方面,动作名词在词典里的解释,除了通常的主动意义之外,还有被动意义。例如,在creation词项里,既可解释为creating,也可解释为being created。因此,上述带物主代词的动作名词就可作如下解释:
their creation—→their being created
his punishment—→his being punished
our oppressions—→our being oppressed
his appointment—→his being appointed
its expression—→its being expressed
我们得到的是一组被动式动名词的复合结构。在这些被动式结构中,物主代词在句法上虽为动名词的逻辑主语,但在语义上却是受事。把这些被动式转换为主动式,物主代词就成了动词的宾语:
their being created—→(…) created them
his being punished—→(…) punished him
our being oppressed—→(…)oppress us
his being appointed—→(…)appointed him
its being expressed—→(…)expressed itself
此外,零派生(zero derivation)、逆派生(backformation) 和以-ing结尾的动作名词都同样可以用物主代词做宾语。例如,(1)的his praises是由动词praise零派生而来的动作名词,下面的(11) 中his release和(12)中的his capture都是这种情况:
(11) They ordered his release.
(12) An Arab journalist with access to bin Laden told Reuters in London the renegade Saudi had warned three weeks ago of an ''unprecedented attack'' on U.S. interests. Washington has offered a $5 million reward for his capture. (Reuters: Sep 11, 2001)
本文开头例(2)中的memory是有相应逆派生动词的动作名词。下面我们来看一个以-ing结尾的动作名词带物主代词宾语的例子:
(13) If you allow people to be badly brought up and their habits to be corrupted little by little from childhood, and if you then punish them for crimes to which their early training has disposed them, what else is this, I ask, but first making them thieves and then punishing them for it? (Thomas More: Utopia)
句中their training的意思是“(…) train them”,their的宾语功能显而易见。又如,在I asked the doctor where he had his training中,his的用法也是这样。
动作名词显然也可以带生格名词做它的宾语:
(14) The “law” which was intended for every man’s preservation, should be any man’s ruin. (Jonathan Swift)
句中的两个动作名词短语可作如下转换:
every man’s preservation—→(The “law”)preserves every man
any man’s ruin—→(The “law”) ruins any man
3. 在施事名词短语中
施事名词和动作名词都属于动转名词,但二者比较起来,有不少方面是很不相同的。首先,动作名词是抽象名词,而施事名词是具体名词。其次,动作名词本身只含有抽象的动作,不包含语义角色,但施事名词本身却含有施事的语义角色。施事名词内部动作与施事兼有这一特点,能够有效地帮助我们判断施事名词前边的物主代词:只需判断是或不是宾语。
英语里许多动词都可以通过添加-er, -or, -ant等后缀来构成施事名词。如果构成施事名词的动词是及物动词,施事名词就有可能带物主代词宾语。例(3)的her chastiser便是这样的例子。又如:
(15) I Salute you, Hrothgar! I am a nephew of Hygelac, and one of his follower. (Beowulf)
(16) Often a thriftless heir lets the house which his father built fall into disrepair, and his successor must repair at great cost what he might have kept up at small charge. (Thomas More)
(17) Then were these two poor men brought before their examiners again… (John Bunyan)
(18) If the institution opened today fulfils the intention of its founder, the picked intelligences among all classes of the population of this district will pass through it. (Thomas Henry Huxley)
上述句子中的施事名词及其物主代词可作如下转换:
his follower—→the persons who followed him
his successor—→the person who succeeded him
their examiners—→the persons who examined them
its founder—→the person who founded it
类似的例子有很多,如their employer, their oppressors, its defenders, your Creator, his visitor以及像their Saviour这种来自拉丁语的施事名词均属此类。此外,还有一些在动词后加-ant的名词也是施事名词。它们也可带物主代词宾语。例如:
(19) He said, that must needs be a miserable country which cannot furnish food for its own inhabitants. (Jonathan Swift)
(20) His Tenants grow rich, his Servants look satisfied… (Richard Steele)
这里,its inhabitants的意思是the people who inhabit it(it指country),his Servants的意思是the persons who serve him。从释义里可以清楚地看出its和his的宾语功能。
同样,施事名词也可以带生格名词做它的宾语:
(21) But one of Hygelac’s followers, in his far-off country, heard about Grendel’s doings. (Beowulf)
按前面的分析方法,可将此例中的Hygelac’s followers改写为the persons who followed Hygelac。
4. 前置和后置两种宾语生格及其成因
以上讨论的宾语生格都位于动作名词或施事名词之前,所以叫前置宾语生格。在意义上与之对应的,还有后置的宾语生格。这种生格除了可用of表示以外,还可用其它介词(如a visit to China)表示,可以叫做后置宾语生格。由于它在很多情况下由of引出,因此有的语法学家把它叫做“of-生格”(Eckersley & Eckersley 1961)。例如:
(22) The master met daily in town, to mourn over the time for the fulfillment of the foreign orders. (E. C. Gaskell)
(23) The United States believes the basis exists for the resolution of tensions between India and Pakistan through diplomatic and peaceful means. (Reuters: Jan 12, 2002)
(24) Should I send him the money in Bank of England notes with the words: “From a lifelong admirer of your genius?” (John Galsworthy)
(25) When Israel strikes back in self-defense, supporters of Palestinian attackers bemoan the loss of Arab innocents caught in the crossfire. (NYT: Mar 25, 2002)
在(22)和(23)中,动作名词fulfillment和resolution所带的后置宾语生格分别是the foreign orders和tensions between India and Pakistan。在(24)和(25)中,施事名词admirer和supporters所带的后置宾语生格分别是your genius和Palestinian attackers。
前置宾语生格与后置宾语生格相比,不管是在动作名词还是施事名词短语里,后者在数量上或出现频率上都要远远超过前者。Quirk等人(1985: 1278-9)指出,动宾关系“通常用of-结构表达”,前置宾语生格“很不普遍”且没有后置的of-结构那么自然。原因是英语为SVO语言。小句层面遵循SVO语序规则,短语层面也遵循这种语序规则。动词后面跟着宾语是人们理解英语时的心理期待,也是使用英语时的心理惯性。这种期待和惯性也体现在动作名词和施事名词短语中。这是顺序象似性在英语里的体现。顺序象似性指的是,SVO顺序跟事件发生的先后顺序相对应(Haiman 1985;沈家煊 1993;王寅 2001)。
然而,这并不意味着英语里前置宾语生格十分罕见。事实上,前置宾语生格虽然出现频率不很高,但却广泛见于各种文体。前面所举的众多实例便是证明。这是经济原则或省力原则在英语里的体现。经济原则在语言类型学里是跟象似性相对立的概念(Croft 2000),意思是“说话人总想在取得精确传递信息的效益时尽量减少自己说话的付出”(沈家煊 1999: 34-5)。根据标记理论(沈家煊 1999;Croft 2000),符合象似原则的语序就是无标记项;符合经济原则的就是有标记项。因此,后置宾语生格是无标记语序,前置宾语生格是有标记语序。象似性原则和经济原则在自然语言中往往形成竞争关系(Croft 2000),这种竞争关系也同样体现在动作名词和施事名词短语中。生格之所以可以表示受事就是经济原则获胜的结果。
在一些习语中,宾语生格也有前置和后置两种选择,人们使用时需要根据语境的具体情况作出选择。例如,to make someone’s acquaintance这个习语中的someone’s就属于前置宾语生格,它的另一种格式to make the acquaintance of someone则是以of someone表示后置宾语生格的。什么情况下应该使用前者,什么情况下应该使用后者,首先跟宾语的语符是否复杂有关。如果占据someone’s位置的是单个的生格名词或物主代词,且不带有修饰语,选用前置宾语生格的可能性大;反之,选用后置宾语生格的可能性大。仍以acquaintance为例:
(26) Where did you make his acquaintance?
(27) He made the acquaintance of the famous linguist last year.
前一例用物主代词his做前置宾语生格是因为它的语符很简单。当然,把(26)中的make his acquaintance改成make the acquaintance of him也未尝不可,但语言的经济原则不支持这种结构。(27)使用符合象似原则的后置宾语生格,原因是linguist带有修饰语,语符较为复杂。
其次,使用前置宾语生格还是后置宾语生格,还跟语篇的信息结构有关。根据Biber等人(2000: 305-6)对美国英语和英国英语语料的统计,前置的-’s有75%表示的是已知信息,只有25%表示新信息;后置的of-结构只有15%表示已知信息,85%表示的是新信息。��一数据虽然是从总体上??行统计得出的,但显然是包括前置和后置宾语生格在内的。因此,尽管就(27)而言,表示已知信息的后置宾语生格(of the famous linguist)属于15%的少数,但从总的使用频率来看,习语中的前置宾语生格却是占上风的。这一现象表明,体现在后置宾语生格上的象似原则与体现在前置宾语生格上的经济原则之间��竞争,在习语里以经济???则获胜告终。这一胜利非常彻底,以致于通常情况下的无标记项与有标记项在习语应用中已发生了根本性的转变。这种转变现象在标记理论(沈家煊 1999;Croft 2000: 136-9)中叫做“标记颠倒”(markedness reversal)。
5. 生格辨认与动作名词的独特性
前面讨论了前置宾语生格和后置宾语生格及其成因等问题。我们还有重要的一个方面需要讨论,那就是如何辨别宾语生格的问题。因为位于动作名词或施事名词之前的物主代词或生格名词并非都是宾语生格。对于施事名词而言,虽然不存在施事与受事的辨别问题,但所带的物主代词或生格名词除了可以是宾语生格之外,还可以是所属生格。而对于动作名词而言,生格辨别问题就显得更加复杂,因为有些非动作名词跟动作名词在形式上没有差别。于是,名词前的生格究竟是主语生格(subjective genitive)、宾语生格还是所属生格(possessive genitive)?即生格表示的究竟是施事、受事还是所属?对这些语义角色的判断并不是一目了然的,而且物主代词或生格名词的形式也帮不上忙。
生格辨别大体上可分两步进行:①动作名词与非动作名词的辨别。动转名词并不全都带有动作意义。例如,acquaintance既可以用作动作名词,也可以用作非动作名词。前者有动作意义,意思是“初次见面而相识”;后者并没有动作意义,意思是“认识的人”。有没有动作意义对于判断它前面的物主代词或生格名词属于什么生格具有重要意义。②在确定某个动转名词为动作名词之后,还要判断它前面的物主代词或生格名词表示的是施事还是受事。
下面我们通过分析memory和possession这两个动作名词来观察这种复杂性。这两个词的派生方向正好相反。前者是通过逆派生才有动词memorize的,后者是由动词possess派生而来的。先看memory。我们来观察它表示的各种意义及其与生格形成的不同语义关系:
(28) He thought my memory had failed me. (Johnathan Swift)
(29) She waited on patiently, almost cheerfully, without alarm, her memories gradually giving place to hopes and visitors of the future. (James Joyce)
(30) The old woman retains her keen memory of early events.
(31) His memory is still green in the hearts of his friends.
为了使分析简单明了,我们将上述例句中的前置生格和后置生格(斜体部分)列表进行分析。
例句序号和表达形式 |
分 析 |
生格类型 |
(28) my memory |
memory的意义是抽象的,没有动作意义;my memory的意思是my ability to remember things; my表示所属。 |
my为所属生格。 |
(29) her memories |
memories的意义是具体的,没有动作意义;her memories的意思是something she remembered;her表示所属。 |
her为所属生格。 |
(30) her memory of early events |
memory为动作名词,整个短语SVO齐全,属于符合象似原则的无标记语序;其中her为S,early events为O。 |
her为主语生格。 |
(31) his memory |
memory为动作名词,his memory的VO顺序倒置,属于符合经济原则的有标记语序;意思是his friends memorize him。 |
his为宾语生格。 |
下面我们转到possession。在讨论之前我们需要看看动作名词的两种基本情况:①来自不及物动词的,②来自及物、不及物两用的动词的。前者的生格无论是前置还是后置,都绝对不会是宾语生格。后者的生格有时会产生歧义。歧义的症结在于:是主语生格还是宾语生格?根据Quirk等人(1985: 1280),解决歧义的办法是:如果前置生格表示的是宾语,后置生格表示的是主语;那么,引出主语生格的应该采用by而避免用of(如the tenants’ scrutiny by the landlord和the man’s examination by the doctor)。一般来说,删除这种短语中的前置宾语生格或后置宾语生格,整个结构仍然合乎语法。然而,对于只有及物用法的possession来说,宾语生格不可删除。也就是说,possession在任何情况下都需要与宾语同现,不管是前置宾语生格还是后置宾语生格,不管是形式上的还是逻辑上的。当然,这种同现并不意味着宾语必须与possession紧密相连,而是指要出现在同一个小句中。请看例子:
(32) They were soon in possession of two or three empty tar-barrels. (Walter Scott)
(33) You thought that letter had been destroyed. How foolish of you! It is in my possession. (Oscar Wilde)
(34) Washington Irving was born in New York in 1783, while the city was still in the possession of the British troops.
在(32)中,possession的宾语生格是后置的of-结构:of two or three empty tar-barrels。(33)中的possession并没有宾语生格,但有逻辑宾语it;my是它的主语生格。(34)中的possession也没有宾语生格,但也有逻辑宾语the city;后置的of-结构是它的主语生格。
对于possession来说,如果只有逻辑上的SV,则不合语法;但如果只有逻辑上的VO,则是合乎语法的。试比较下面两个句子(Quirk et al 1985: 1280):
(35) *The possession of some children would be dangerous.
(36) Possession of the pills would be dangerous.
之所以如此,是由它的相应动词possess的语义特征决定的:possess在任何情况下都需要带有自己的宾语。其句型和语义结构直接影响着它的动作名词。就是说,在语义结构上,possession与possess遵循着同一原则。
根据上面的讨论,我们可以把possession的用法概括为以下几点:①possession不带任何限定词时,必须带后置宾语生格;这种格式不存在前置主语生格或前置宾语生格的问题。②possession带定冠词时,必须带后置主语生格;如果取代定冠词的是物主代词或生格名词,它毫无疑问就是主语生格。根据以上两点,possession在任何情况下都不存在前置宾语生格的问题。③在逻辑上possession应具有SVO和VO两种格式才合乎语法,不存在SV结构;但这种逻辑结构要从小句层面分析。
从以上对两个动作名词短语的分析可知,前置生格与被限定的名词存在着多种语义关系,这些语义关系无法根据生格的形式加以判断。可以使这些语义关系明朗化的是被限定的名词所表示的意义或语义结构。就被限定的动作名词和非动作名词来说,前置生格可以表示施事、受事或所属多种意义;仅就被限定的动作名词来说,前置生格可以表示施事或受事。但是,对于少数动作名词(如possession)而言,由于象似原则的强烈作用,语序必须按事件发生的先后顺序排列,因而不存在前置宾语生格的形式。这可以看作在象似原则与经济原则的竞争中前者获胜的典型例子。
6. 结语
生格在动作名词和施事名词短语中具有宾语功能。从所表达的意义来看,前置宾语生格与后置宾语生格(of-生格)相对应。
用生格表示受事的前置宾语生格可以作多视角解释。从语篇功能上看,生格具有语符简单和表示已知信息的特点。动作名词和施事名词的受事选择前置还是后置,跟宾语(及其修饰成分)的语符复杂程度以及语篇的信息结构都有关系。生格,特别是物主代词,是语符简单的表达,同时也是已知信息,因而在适当的语篇中被用来表示前置宾语。
从认知上看,后置宾语生格符合象似原则,而前置宾语生格符合经济原则。就一般的动作名词和施事名词短语来说,象似原则与经济原则之间的竞争结果是象似原则占优势;但就习语来说,却是经济原则占优势,甚至导致标记颠倒。
然而,“生格+名词”的格式表达的是什么语义关系,单从形式进行分析,是无能为力的。这给我们的启示是:意义的表达离不开形式,但不同的意义却可以通过相同形式来表达;形式不能决定意义,至少可以说无法反映全部意义,形式对意义的反映显然存在着局限性。在意义解释上存在着局限性的“生格+名词”结构之所以可以被理解,根据认知语言学,靠的是人们对世界的体验和百科知识。
动作名词或施事名词短语中的前置宾语生格总体上属于有标记项,但在习语中却颠倒为无标记项。这告诉我们,英语里的前置宾语生格不可忽略。
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